Cell Biology

CELL:

The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism. It is typically microscopic and consists of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane. Cells are building blocks of the body and each cell is capable of performing a basic function of life such as reproduction, respiration, excretion, growth, and so on. Cells are known as the structural and functional units of life. All the life activities exhibited by living organisms are the combined action of these cells.

CELL THEORY:

A German botanist Mathias Jacob Schleiden (1838) and a German zoologist Theodor Schwann (1839) found out that plant tissues and animal tissues were made of cells. They combined their views and proposed their views as Cell theory. The fundamental features of cell theory are:

 All living organisms are made up of cells and their products.

 Cells are the structural and functional units of all living organisms.

 Each cell is made of a small mass of protoplasm and a nucleus.

 Each cell arises from the pre-existing cell.

 All cells are basically similar in chemical composition and metabolic activities.

 The function of an organism is the total sum of activities and interaction of constituents cells.

EXCEPTIONS TO CELL THEORY:

Cell theory does not cover all organisms. Some exceptions of cell theory are:

 Viruses: they lack cellular machinery

 Bacteria and Cyanobacteria: they lack a true nucleus.

 Some organisms such as Rhizopus, Mucor, and Vaucheria have coenocytic bodies (bodies not

differentiated into cells).

 Mature mammalian RBCs and Sieve tube cells are without nuclei.

 

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CELL AS AUTONOMOUS UNIT:

Cells are autonomous units because of the following facts:

 Each and every cell is capable of independent existence.

 While genetic information is contained in a cell.

 Each cell converts macromolecules into its own macromolecules.

 Each cell can obtain or manufacture energy.

 Each cell regulates its own activities through-flow of energy.

 Each cell has a definite life span.

CELLULAR TOTIPOTENCY:

The ability of a living nucleated cell to regenerate into a complete organism is known as Cellular totipotency. The concept of cellular totipotency was proposed by Haberlandt in 1902. However, cellular totipotency was experimentally proved by Steward and his co-workers by growing phloem tissue of carrot root into the completely healthy and fertile plant.

UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS:

Unicellular organism:

Organisms that are made from just one cell are known as unicellular organisms. In a unicellular organism, the single cell performs all metabolic functions such as growth, respiration, digestion, etc. Unicellular organisms are independent and have little or no coordination with other cells except for sexual reproduction.

Multicellular organism:

The organisms which are made from numerous cells are known as multicellular organisms. In a multicellular organism, there is a division of labor among the cells. Different cells of different organs have different functions but there is coordination among them.

ENERGY AND INFORMATION FLOW IN A CELL

The flow of energy:

Energy is necessary for all living organisms to perform different life processes. Green cells trap solar energy for the preparation of energy-rich compounds such as carbohydrates while the non-green cells obtain energy by oxidization of such energy-rich compounds in plants. However, in animals, the compound which contains energy is transferred in a food chain of an ecosystem.

The flow of information:

The cell needs information in order to conduct the life processes which they may get either from inside the cell or from outside the cell. Thus there are two types of information i.e.

a) Intrinsic information:

The information that is present inside the cell is known as Intrinsic information. The cell gets intrinsic information from DNA molecules. DNA has information to regulate metabolic activities, synthesizing protein, etc.

b) Extrinsic information:

The information that comes from outside of the cell is known as Extrinsic information. Cell

obtains extrinsic information from certain stimuli, metal ions or hormones. This information regulates cellular activities far from their origin.

a) Sandwich Model:

This model was proposed by J. Danielli and H. Davson in 1935. According to this model, cell

the membrane consists of phospholipid bilayers sandwiched between two layers of proteins.

b) Unit membrane concept:

This model was proposed by J.D. Robertson in 1959. According to this model, all bio

membranes are either made of a unit membrane or multiple unit membranes where each

unit membranes are trilaminar structures i.e. they have phospholipid bilayer present

between protein layers.

c) Fluid Mosaic Model:

This model was proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1977. According to this model, the cell

membrane consists of fluid phospholipid with protein molecules floating on it. This model

states that proteins are not found in uniform layers but are present in a mosaic pattern like

icebergs in the sea. The hydrophobic tail of the phospholipid layer lies towards the center whereas

the hydrophilic head lies toward the periphery and globular proteins are found on the outer side

(extrinsic proteins) as well as the inner side (intrinsic proteins) of the phospholipids bilayer. Thus

present protein molecules act as enzymes, carriers, and receptors.

Structure:

Numerous models have been proposed by different scientists to explain the structure of a cell

membrane. The important models are as follows:

The cell wall is made of three different layers i.e. middle lamella, primary wall, and secondary wall.

i) Middle lamella: It is the outermost thin cementing layer that lies between adjacent cells.

It is made of calcium and magnesium.

ii) Primary wall: It is a more or less elastic layer formed after the middle lamella. It is made of

pectin, hemicellulose, and cellulose.

iii) Secondary wall: It is a much thicker, rigid, and inelastic layer formed inner to the primary wall. It

is made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, and lignin.

Primary and secondary walls are not continuous and form gaps called plasmodesmata which acts

as the cytoplasmic bridge between two cells.

Functions:

 It protects cells from injury.

 It is selectively permeable so allows only selected substances to pass through it.

 It functions as a receptor site for various stimuli such as hormones, antigens, etc

 The sub-cellular membrane forms a separate chamber for specific metabolism.

 It provides sheath for cilia and flagella.

 Transporation of materials takes place through the plasma membrane by diffusion, osmosis,

active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis, etc

PROTOPLASM:

Protoplasm is a colloidal mass found in cells and it is the living matter of cells. It consists of cytoplasm

and nucleus.

a) CYTOPLASM:

 It is a jelly-like semi-solid mass of protoplasm excluding the nucleus. It consists of cell organelles and cell inclusions.

i) Cell organelles: These are living sub-cellular bodies of cytoplasm which have a definite

shape, size and are specialized for specific functions. E.g. Mitochondria, Chloroplast,

etc

ii) Cell inclusions: These are non-living metabolically inactive substances found in

the cytoplasm. E.g. Carbohydrates, Proteins, Pigments, Hormones, etc

Functions of cytoplasm:

 It facilitates the intracellular distribution of nutrients, metabolites, etc

 It helps in the exchange of materials between organelles.

 It is the seat of synthesis of biochemical molecules such as nucleotides, proteins, etc

 It is the site of glycolysis and biosynthesis of fatty acids. 

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Mitochondria

Mitochondria were first discovered by Kolliker in 1880 and the name Mitochondria was assigned by

Benda in 1897. These are the largest cell organelles in animals. They are the site of cellular respiration

and helps in energy production thus are known as the powerhouse of the cell. Energy in the form of ATP is

synthesized during aerobic respiration in mitochondria. Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotic cells

except mammalian RBC and sieve tube elements.

Mitochondria differ in shape from cylindrical, tubular, spherical to rod-shaped. Each mitochondrion

consists of two membranes i.e. outer membrane and inner membrane. The space enclosed between

the outer and inner membrane is called intermembrane space. The outer membrane of mitochondria is

smooth while the inner membrane is folded inward to form finger-like projections called Cristae. The

inner side of the inner membrane bears small tennis racket like structures called exosomes or F1

particles or elementary particles. Each oxysome has a head, a stalk, and a base. Oxysomes helps in

ATP synthesis. The inner membrane of mitochondria encloses a gel-like substance called matrix. The

matrix consists of proteins, ribosomes (the 70s), double-stranded circular naked DNA, RNA, and enzymes.

Functions:

 They are powerhouses of the cell which generate energy.

 They form the middle piece of sperm.

 They help in yolk formation.

 Some amino acids like glutamic acid, aspartic acid are synthesized in mitochondria.

 They help in the elongation of fatty acids.

 They regulate calcium ion concentration in cells.

 They provide important intermediates for the synthesis of chlorophyll, cytochrome, steroids, etc

PLASTIDS:

The term plastid was introduced by E.Haeckel in 1866. Plastids are colored organelles or cells.

Plastids are present in plants and few protozoans. They are of three types: Chloroplast, Chromoplast

, and Leucoplast. Plastids are interchangeable i.e. leucoplast when exposed to sunlight changes to

the chloroplast (potato), chloroplast changes to chromoplast when the fruit ripens, leucoplast changes, etc

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Biology Questions for Entrance

 Biology Questions for Competitive Exams

Topical Questions in Biology

Biology Topical Questions for competitive Exam from Learn Infinite

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Electrostatics Grade 11 notes

Electrostatics

The branch of physics which deals with the electrical charges at rest is called electrostatics or static electricity.

Current electricity:

The branch of electricity that deals with the charge in motion is called current electricity

Electric Charge:

The charge is the inherent property of some fundamental particles because of which matter experiences the force in the electromagnetic field.

In electrostatics, electric charges are produced by friction between two bodies due to the transfer of electrons from one body to another without their actual movement. So, an object can be changed due to friction.

When a glass rod is rubbed with silk and brought near small paper pieces it attracts them. The property developed

 

in glass rod on rubbing with silk is supposed to be positive charge and that developed in silk is supposed to be the negative charge.

When a plastic comb is rubbed with hair, a plastic comb

becomes electrically charged Which is conformed when is

brought near To the small piece of papers It attracts the piece of paper.

Types of Electric charge:

Electric charges are basically of two types

1. Positive charge: Positive charge is fundamentally carried by protons.

2. Negative charge: Negative charge is fundamentally carried by electrons.

The body which losses electrons become

positively charged and the body which gains

electrons become negatively charged.

A particle or an object which has net-zero charges is referred to as neutral. Neutrons are neutral.

Thus, electric charge is the fundamental property of every matter carried by subatomic particles such as

electrons and protons.

Unit and Dimension of Electric Charge

The unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C).

The charge is the product of two fundamental quantities: Electric current (I) and time (T)

The electric Charge(q) = Current(I) x Time(t)

Thus,

Electric charge is the scalar quantity and is usually denoted by “q”. Its SI unit is Coulomb(C) or Ampere second.

Note:

Remember that a positive charge experiences force along the direction of the electric field and a negative charge experiences force in the opposite direction.

The CGS unit of Charge is stat−coulomb.

1C=3×10⁹ Statcoulomb

1nC=10⁻⁹C

1μC=10⁻⁶C

Dimension

Charge (q) = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝐼×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑇

Or,

𝑞=[𝐼𝑇]or [𝐴𝑇]

The modern theory of electrification

The process of developing a charge in a body is called electrification.

According to this theory, a body can be charged by the transfer of electrons. Every material is composed of atoms. In an atom, the number of positively charged protons must be equal to the number of negatively charged electrons.

So, it is electrically neutral.

By any process, if some of the electrons are removed, the body becomes positively charged because several protons are more than electrons.

On the other hand, the material that receives electrons acquires a negative charge because of extra electrons added.

Properties of electric charge:

1. Only two types of electric charges exist in nature. They are positive and negative.

2. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.

3. It is a scalar Quantity, So the total charge on the body is the algebraic sum of all charges distributed over different parts of it.

4. Electric Charge is quantized.

The charge on a body is always an integral multiple of the basic unit of charge. This basic unit is

taken as the charge on an electron or proton which is equal to 1.6x10 19 C.

i.e. Total Charge on a body

(Q) = ±𝐍e

This is called the quantization of charge.

Where, e = 1.6x10 19 C is charge of an electron and N= 0,1,2,3,4,……...

5. Electric charge is conserved, i.e. charge can neither be created nor be

6. The electric charge on a body does not depend on its speed.

Conductor:

Materials through which electricity (charge) can pass easily are called conductors. Generally, the metals like copper, silver, iron, acidic water, the human body, earth, etc. are the conductors of electricity.

Conductors can be charged by friction and the charges they gain spread over the whole surface.

Conductors like metals possess free electrons.

Metals like copper, silver, gold, and aluminum are very good conductors of electricity.

Insulator:

Materials which do not allow the electric charges to pass through them are called the insulators. Glass, wood, dry paper, rubber, ebonite, air, etc. are the insulators or non-conductors of electricity.

Insulators can gain charges by friction but the charges can’t move to other parts and remain localized.

Insulators do not possess free electrons.

Fused quartz is a very good example of an insulator. 

Charging of a Body:

The charging of a body is the process in which a body gains or loses charged particles (electron). There are three method for the charging of a body.

•    Friction.

•    Conduction.

•    Induction.

Charging by Friction:

Charge particles can be transferred by rubbing a body to another.

While rubbing, the electrons on a body move to another body. One which losses the electrons, gets positively charged and the other, which gains the electrons, gets negatively charged.

Nature of charge in rubbing pair materials
S.N.	Pair materials	Positively charged	Negatively charged
1	Glass rod, Silk Cloth	Glass Rod	Silk cloth
2	Fur, ebonite rod	Fur	Ebonite rod
3	Woolen cloth, Plastic pen	Woolen Cloth	Plastic Pen
4	Woolen carpet, rubber	Woolen Carpet	Rubber
5	Dry hair, plastic comb	Dry Hair	Plastic Comb

Charging a body by conduction

When a neutral body is brought into contact with a charged body some charges flow into it and become charged. The charge acquired by the neutral body is similar to that of the charged body.

Fig. charging of a metallic sphere by conduction

 

Charging by Induction: The temporary charging of a body when it is brought nearer to a charged body without touching it is known as induction. The charge on an originally charged body is called inducing charge and the charge in a conductor which is influenced by the charge on another body is known as induced charge. The charge developed at near ends is called induced bound charge and the charge developed at the far end is called induced  free charge.

(a) Charging a body negatively  by induction

Step (I):

If a positively charged glass rod is brought near a body PQ  (Kept on an insulating stand), the end P of the body acquires bound negative charges and the far end Q acquires free positive charges due to induction as shown in figure 1(a).

Step (II):

The body PQ is earthed with the help of the metal wire as shown in figure 1(b). In this case, the free positive charges flow to the earth. However, the negative charges being the bound charges do not move into the earth.

Step (III): The earthed is removed keeping the glass rod still in its position. The bound negative charges remain at end P as shown in figure 1 (c).

FFig1: Charging a body negatively by induction Step (IV):

Finally, the positively charged rod is removed away from the body PQ. The bound negative charge spread over the whole surface of the body PQ as shown in figure 1(d). Therefore, the body's PQ becomes negatively charged by induction.

Ebonite rod

•       Step (I): An ebonite rod is charged negatively by rubbing it with fur. The negatively charged ebonite rod is brought close to the body PQ to be charged as in figure (2) a. In doing so, the end P of the body acquires positive charges, and the end Q acquires negatives charges.

•       Step (II):

The conductor is earthed as shown in figure (2) b. The negative charges in the body PQ flows into the earth since they are free of charge. However, the positive bound charges remain in the body.

•       Step (III):

The earthing is removed from the body PQ keeping the ebonite rod as it were as in figure (2) c.

•       Step (IV):

The negatively charged ebonite rod is removed. In doing so, the positive charges on the body PQ became free and get distributed     Fig 2: Charging a body positively by induction uniformly throughout the body as in figure (2) d. 

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Neb Grade 11 Biology

Introduction to Biology

Biology (taken from two Greek words Bios means life and logos means to study or discourses) is a science that deals with phenomena of life.

The term Biology was first used by Lamarck and Treviranus.

However, Aristotle (384-322 BC) is known as the father of Biology. 

Botany: The word botany is derived from the Greek word 'botane' which means herb or plant. Thus, Botany is the branch of biology that deals with the study of plants.

Zoology: The word Zoology is derived from the Greek word 'Zoon' which means animal. Thus, Zoology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of animals.

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Thermodynamics Grade 11 combined summary

Thermodynamics ( NCERT and NEB )

 Temperature is a relative measure or indication of hotness or coldness. Hot utensils are said to have a high temperature, and ice cubes to have a low temperature. An object that has a higher temperature than another object is said to be hotter. Note that hot and cold are relative terms.

We know from experience that a glass of ice-cold water left on a table on a hot summer day eventually warms up whereas a cup of hot tea on the same table cools down. It means that when the temperature of the body, ice-cold water or hot tea in this case, and its surrounding medium are different, heat the transfer takes place between the system and the surrounding medium, until the body and the surrounding medium, are at the same temperature.

Measurement of temperature using a thermometer

A measure of temperature is obtained using a thermometer. Many physical properties of materials change sufficiently with temperature. Some such properties are used as the basis for constructing thermometers. The commonly used property is the variation of the volume of a liquid with temperature. For example, in common liquid–in–glass thermometers, mercury, alcohol, etc., are used whose volume varies linearly with temperature over a wide range.

 Thermometers are calibrated so that a numerical value may be assigned to a given temperature on an appropriate scale. For the definition of any standard scale, two fixed reference points are needed. Since all substances change dimensions with temperature, an absolute reference for expansion is not available. However, the necessary fixed points may be correlated to the physical phenomena that always occur at the same temperature.

 The ice point and the steam point of water are two convenient fixed points and are known as the freezing and boiling points, respectively. These two points are the temperatures at which pure water freezes and boils under standard pressure. The two familiar temperature scales are the Fahrenheit temperature scale and the Celsius temperature scale. The ice and steam point have values 32 °F and 212 °F, respectively, on the Fahrenheit scale and 0 °C and 100 °C on the Celsius scale.

On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 equal intervals between two reference points, and on the Celsius scale, there are 100.

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Essay on ' My Ambition of Being a Doctor' , 'My Hobbies' , ' My Journey by Plane' and ' My Journey by Bus'

  My Ambition of Being a Doctor

My ambition in life is to be a medical doctor. Ambition in life is the destination to reach. Everybody has an aim in life. Somebody wants to be a businessman or a teacher or an engineer. Somebody wants to be a social worker or a political leader. I hope I can meet my ambition if I work sincerely and steadily because my teachers have told me that I am a talented student. I do believe in my teachers' words.

I will feel free after my SEE exam. I am thinking of having entertainment and refreshment for a few days after my SEE because I may feel tired and bored. I have not visited some famous places in our country yet I am planning to visit Pokhara and Gorkha. I will spend a few days there. After my visit, I will learn computers for a couple of months. I am thinking of studying science. I will prepare for the entrance test.

After the SEE result is published, I will try to find out one of the best higher secondary schools to get admitted to. I hope I will be able to do it. I will study Science. After two years, I will complete higher secondary education securing good marks. Then I will study medicine. I want to be a medical doctor. I will join a medical college. After some years, I will be a doctor.

After I pass MBBS, I will go to a remote area to serve the people. 1 has known that many people die of diseases in remote areas due to a lack of proper treatment every year. I will try to serve them mainly in two ways: promoting health awareness and curing unhealthy people. I feel that health education functions more significantly than treatment. Therefore I will try to educate the people by running health awareness programs. I am thinking that I will request school and college teachers to manage some classes for me. I hope they will provide me. I will tell the students to share their knowledge and skills with their parents. Furthermore, I will try to educate some health representatives. They will visit individual houses and try to educate the people to be healthy. I am planning to serve the people for ten years. After then I will come back to my native place to work as a doctor.

My ambition of being a doctor is not to earn money but to serve the people. I serve the people and the motherland honestly. I am strongly willing to gain popularity, prestige, and love from the people. I want to be an ideal doctor. It is my ambition in life.

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 My Hobbies

Hobbies provide us with pleasure. We have different means of entertainment. A hobby is one of the ways of entertaining doing something repeatedly. We can utilize our spare time doing something as our hobbies. Hobbies make people feel entertained. Hobbies are for only pleasure, but not for financial support. They definitely enrich our mental and physical health.

Different individuals enjoy different hobbies. Some of the common hobbies are taking photographs, collecting stamps, gardening, collecting coins, painting, and drawing, etc. Some people seem to be fond of visiting places or playing indoor games. Some people enjoy their spare time writing poems, songs, reading novels and stories, etc. Everybody enjoys his spare time according to his interest.

There are some of the advantages of hobbies. We can properly utilize our spare time and do not feel bored. Hobbies are one of the easiest and cheapest ways of having pleasure. We do not need more money to fulfill our needs related to hobbies. The people who have hobbies cannot be lazy because if they have spare time, they start enjoying hobbies. We can have both mental and physical exercises. If we read novels, stories, poems, etc. we can have mental exercises. My hobbies of gardening, visiting places, cycling. etc. contribute to physical exercises. We can enrich our knowledge by means of our hobbies. For example, the hobbies of reading various types of materials, writing different articles, collecting stamps, visiting places, etc. are knowledge for all the people.

I am fond of visiting places and taking photographs. By visiting places and things, we can have pleasure and knowledge. We can enjoy the photographs in our leisure time. The photographs of natural scenes and scenery are really entertaining for me. I have many photographs of mountains, rivers, lakes, waterfalls, forests, caves, grasslands, animals, birds, etc. Similarly, I have a good collection of arts and handicrafts I have watched many programs, folk dances, historical events and have taken photographs of them.

I am well-satisfied with the collection of photographs. I am thinking of managing an exhibition of photographs. It will be advantageous for all the visitors, I do expect.

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 My First Journey by Plane

Traveling by plane is entertaining for me, but on my first journey by plane, I felt slightly afraid and excited. We want to visit the places to get pleasure, information, and knowledge. In order to visit them, we have to travel long distances, too. If we plan to visit places far from our native place, we can travel by plane,

Last year, I had an opportunity to travel by plane. I had to go to Biratnagar from Kathmandu. It was the rainy season. The road to the eastern part of Nepal was blocked by landslides in many places for some days. Therefore, my father bought a plane ticket for me. On the day of my departure to Biratnagar, I went to the airport with my father. there only to see me off. While we were waiting for our plane, it was informed that our plane was ready. Then, we were informed to go to the plane, the door of which was open.

The passengers were standing in a queue. After a few minutes, I entered the plane and took a seat. I felt both fear and excitement. Everybody was informed to fasten safety belts but I didn't know how to do it. As the door got closed, the plane started to run along the runway. I felt afraid. I closed my eyes and prayed Almighty. After a few minutes, I opened my eyes. I realized the plane was flying in the sky. I could see small houses, forests, streets, roads, streams, rivers, etc. from the plane. Gradually my fear started to fade away. I noticed that all the passengers were entertained by watching nature through the windows. Then, I felt there was no cause to fear. But after a few minutes, our plane started making strange sounds. Therefore, I felt afraid and looked at other passengers and the air hostesses. They were sitting comfortably. They did not seem to have been scared. And I realized that it was not any problem. At the same time, I happened to watch the scene of the mountains through the window. How beautiful they were! All of them were very bright. Those snow-capped mountain peaks made me forget myself, too. It means that I was spellbound by the beauty of those mountain peaks.

After half an hour, our plane was over the Terai. I could see paddy fields easily. Unfortunately, the weather became bad. The plane started bumping. I was about to fall off my seat because I had not fastened the safety belt. Then, my neighbor helped me to fasten it. After a few minutes, the weather became clear. As we were about to reach Biratnagar, I could see the town and the airport. I felt that our plane was descending regularly. When it landed, I got off the plane quickly My uncle Rajesh was waiting for me at the airport. We hired a taxi and went to my uncle's house.

Nowadays, I am fond of traveling by plane. It is comfortable, easy, fast, and entertaining. I also feel that it is the most dangerous means of transport we have. My first journey by plane is a memorable experience in my life.

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My Journey by Bus

Last year, I planned to spend our winter vacation with my brother. I bought the bus tickets to travel from Dharan to Hile. Dharan is a beautiful market in Sunsari and Hile is a very attractive and newly developing market in Dhankuta. As I prepared everything, I along with my brother, went to the bus stop on time.

When we arrived at the bus stop, we saw that it was overcrowded. We searched for our bus. There was a long queue of passengers. We stood in the same queue. After a few minutes, we got on the bus but it was already packed. We could not see any vacant seats We got off it and requested the conductor of the bus to manage two seats. He replied he could not. Then, we returned our tickets and looked for another bus. Fortunately, we got an empty bus and hurriedly got on it. Most of the seats were vacant. We chose two front seats and sat comfortably.

After a few minutes, all the seats were occupied and gradually the bus got overcrowded. The bus left on time at 6:00 a.m. While we were talking and enjoying the scene outside through the windows, an old woman called me by my first name. As I looked at her, I knew that she was my neighbor. She was standing with great difficulty. I was in dilemma about what was to be done. If I told her to take my seat, I had to keep myself standing for the whole journey. I was morally and spiritually compelled to provide her the seat and I kept standing near it. While the bus was moving along many bends. of the road, I felt great difficulty balancing my body.

When the bus arrived at Vedetar at the peak of the hill, we got off it for breakfast. We enjoyed watching beautiful Dharan from there. Most of the passengers had tea and snacks; and so did we. I felt extremely cold because it is a very cold place although it is an hour bus ride from Dharan. I got on the bus and wore my warm jacket. I like the place very much because it is really attractive. It is rich in natural beauty. We also took some photographs there. My brother bought some oranges but they were very cold to have. After half an hour, we again started our journey.

When we reached Hile, we got off the bus. I felt extremely tired as I had not got any seat on the bus. Hile is at the top of the hill. It is a beautiful market. It also attracts many tourists every year. After we got off the bus, we went to a hotel and had bread and curry. Then, we started trekking to my native village.

I think that my journey taught me a lesson. The bus service is not well planned. The department concerned should plan it properly. It is really difficult for children and old passengers to travel. Weak passengers cannot get seats. The bus staff does not care about the passengers. There is not seat reservation system. It is not fair for the passengers.

Thank You for being here !!🙏🙏